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A Brief History of Ghana - Part 1

By US Department of State

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Migrants From an Ancient Kingdom?:

The history of the Gold Coast before the last quarter of the 15th century is derived primarily from oral tradition that refers to migrations from the ancient kingdoms of the western Soudan (the area of Mauritania and Mali). The Gold Coast was renamed Ghana upon independence in 1957 because of indications that present-day inhabitants descended from migrants who moved south from the ancient kingdom of Ghana.

Building the Portuguese Military Factory of El Mina:

The first contact between Europe and the Gold Coast dates from 1470, when a party of Portuguese landed. In 1482, the Portuguese built Elmina Castle (São Jorge da Mina) as a permanent trading base. Thomas Windham made the first recorded English trading voyage to the coast in 1553. During the next three centuries, the English, Danes, Dutch, Germans, and Portuguese controlled various parts of the coastal areas.

Britain Takes Control:

In 1821, the British Government took control of the British trading forts on the Gold Coast. In 1844, Fanti chiefs in the area signed an agreement with the British that became the legal steppingstone to colonial status for the coastal area. From 1826 to 1900, the British fought a series of campaigns against the Ashantis (specifically the 1st Ashanti War 1863-64 and the 2nd Ashanti War 1873-74), whose kingdom was located inland. In 1902, they succeeded in establishing firm control over the Ashanti region and making the northern territories a protectorate.

Addition of German Togoland Following World War I:

British Togoland, the fourth territorial element eventually to form the nation, was part of a former German colony administered by the United Kingdom from Accra as a League of Nations mandate after 1922. In December 1946, British Togoland became a UN Trust Territory, and in 1957, following a 1956 plebiscite, the United Nations agreed that the territory would become part of Ghana when the Gold Coast achieved independence.

Road to Independence After World War II:

The four territorial divisions were administered separately until 1946, when the British Government ruled them as a single unit. In 1951, a constitution was promulgated that called for a greatly enlarged legislature composed principally of members elected by popular vote directly or indirectly. An executive council was responsible for formulating policy, with most African members drawn from the legislature and including three ex officio members appointed by the governor.

Kwame Nkrumah Takes Power:

A new constitution, approved on April 29, 1954, established a cabinet comprising African ministers drawn from an all-African legislature chosen by direct election. In the elections that followed, the Convention People's Party (CPP), led by Kwame Nkrumah, won the majority of seats in the new Legislative Assembly. Kwame Nkrumah became Prime Minister.

Achieving Independence:

In May 1956, Nkrumah's Gold Coast government issued a white paper containing proposals for Gold Coast independence. The British Government stated it would agree to a firm date for independence if a reasonable majority for such a step were obtained in the Gold Coast Legislative Assembly after a general election. The 1956 election returned the CPP to power with 71 of the 104 seats in the Legislative Assembly. Ghana became an independent state on March 6, 1957, when the United Kingdom relinquished its control over the Colony of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, the Northern Territories Protectorate, and British Togoland.

Reorganizing the Territory:

In subsequent reorganizations, the country was divided into 10 regions, which currently are subdivided into 138 districts. The original Gold Coast Colony now comprises the Western, Central, Eastern, and Greater Accra Regions, with a small portion at the mouth of the Volta River assigned to the Volta Region; the Ashanti area was divided into the Ashanti and Brong-Ahafo Regions; the Northern Territories into the Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions; and British Togoland essentially is the same area as the Volta Region.

A Stable Beginning:

After independence, the CPP government under Nkrumah sought to develop Ghana as a modern, semi-industrialized, unitary socialist state. The government emphasized political and economic organization, endeavoring to increase stability and productivity through labor, youth, farmers, cooperatives, and other organizations integrated with the CPP. The government, according to Nkrumah, acted only as "the agent of the CPP" in seeking to accomplish these goals.

Introducing Authoritarian Rule and a One-Party State:

The CPP's control was challenged and criticized, and Prime Minister Nkrumah used the Preventive Detention Act (1958), which provided for detention without trial for up to 5 years (later extended to 10 years). On July 1, 1960, a new constitution was adopted, changing Ghana from a parliamentary system with a prime minister to a republican form of government headed by a powerful president. In August 1960, Nkrumah was given authority to scrutinize newspapers and other publications before publication. This political evolution continued into early 1964, when a constitutional referendum changed the country to a one-party state.

Next: A Brief History of Ghana - Part 2
Next: A Brief History of Ghana - Part 3

_{(Text from Public Domain material, US Department of State Background Notes.)}

Brief History of Ghana

Alistair Boddy-Evans
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bitcoins

Bitcoin is a peer-to-peer payment system and digital currency introduced as open source software in 2009 by pseudonymous developer Satoshi Nakamoto. It is a cryptocurrency, so-called because it uses cryptography to control the creation and transfer of money.^[5] Users send payments by broadcasting digitally signed messages to the network. Participants known as miners verify and timestamp transactions into a shared public database called the block chain, for which they are rewarded with transaction fees and newly minted bitcoins.^[6] Conventionally "Bitcoin" capitalized refers to the technology and network whereas "bitcoins" lowercase refers to the currency itself.^[7] Bitcoins can be obtained by mining or in exchange for products, services, or other currencies.^[8]
Bitcoin has been a subject of scrutiny due to ties with illicit activity. In 2013 the FBI shut down the Silk Road online black market and seized 144,000 bitcoins worth US$28.5 million at the time.^[9] The United States, however, is currently considered to be Bitcoin friendly compared to other governments.^[10] In China, new rules restricted bitcoin exchange for local currency,^[11] and the European Banking Authority has warned that Bitcoin lacks consumer protections.^[12] Bitcoins can be stolen and chargebacks are impossible.^[13]
Commercial use of Bitcoin, illicit or otherwise, is currently small compared to its use by speculators, which has fueled price volatility.^[14] Bitcoin as a form of payment for products and services has seen growth, however, and merchants have an incentive to accept the currency because transaction fees are lower than the 2–3% typically imposed by credit card processors.^[15]

Transactions

Further information: Bitcoin protocol

Users send and receive payments using client software on a personal computer, mobile device or web application. Transactions do not explicitly identify the payer and payee by name. Instead, a Bitcoin transaction transfers ownership from one Bitcoin address to another. Transactions are confirmed by the network using a proof-of-work system called mining, in which often specialized computers append blocks of transactions to a shared public record called the block chain.^[16] Solving the cryptographic puzzle required to append a block currently carries a reward of 25 bitcoins plus fees included in transactions in the block. The puzzle difficulty self-adjusts as necessary to achieve a block creation rate of one approximately every ten minutes.^[17]

Software

Electrum - A Bitcoin client

Bitcoin client software, or simply Bitcoin clients, allow a user to send and receive bitcoin transactions. The first Bitcoin software was released in 2009 by Satoshi Nakamoto as open source code. The "Satoshi client", Bitcoin-Qt, has since been maintained and enhanced by a group of core developers and other contributors. Bitcoin-Qt can be used as a desktop client for regular payments or as a server utility for merchants and other payment services. Historically Bitcoin-Qt also supported bitcoin mining, however this feature has been redacted due to the relative inefficiency of performing mining computations on a CPU. Bitcoin-Qt is sometimes referred to as the "reference client" because it serves to define the Bitcoin protocol and acts as a reference standard for other implementations.
Bitcoin clients have been implemented in several programming languages for personal computers, mobile devices, and as web applications. At the most basic a client generates and stores private keys and communicates with peers on the Bitcoin network. When making a purchase with a mobile device, the use of QR codes to simplify transactions is ubiquitous. There are also now several server software implementations of the Bitcoin protocol.^{[citation needed]} So-called "full client" nodes on the network validate transactions and blocks they receive and relay them to connected peers.

Wallets

Example of Physical bitcoins ^[18]

A paper wallet with QR codes

Bitcoin uses the ECDSA implementation of public-key cryptography, in which pairs of cryptographic keys, one public and one private, are generated.^[19] A collection of keys is called a wallet. Note that sometimes the term wallet is used to mean client software in the sense of digital wallet. A Bitcoin transaction transfers ownership to a new address, an alphanumeric string of the form 1FfmbHfnpaZjKFvyi1okTjJJusN455paPH derived from public keys by application of a hash function and encoding scheme. The corresponding private keys act as a safeguard; a valid payment message from an address must contain the associated public key and a digital signature proving possession of the associated private key. Because anyone with a private key can spend all of the bitcoins sent to the corresponding address, the essence of Bitcoin security is protection of private keys.
Theft of bitcoins has occurred on numerous occasions.^[20] The practical day-to-day security of Bitcoin wallets remains an on-going concern.^[21] Risk of theft can be reduced by generating keys offline on an uncompromised computer and saving them on external storage or paper printouts.^[22]
Various vendors produce physical bitcoins, collectables that store a private key on paper, metal,^[23] wood,^[24] or plastic. Images of physical bitcoins are ubiquitous in media coverage of Bitcoin.

Block chain

Integral to Bitcoin is a public database and sequential record of all transactions, known as the block chain, that records current bitcoin ownership as well as at all points in the past. By keeping a record of all transactions, the block chain prevents double-spending.^[17] Those that maintain the block chain are called miners and are rewarded with newly created bitcoins as well as transaction fees. Payment processing work done by miners verifies each transaction as valid and adds it to the block chain.^[25] Bitcoin payment processing fees are optional and generally substantially lower than those of credit cards or money transfers.^[26] Currently, doing the work of payment processing is rewarded with newly created bitcoins, but this reward is halved every few years,^[27] eventually being phased out once the Bitcoin ceiling of 21 million units is reached. Payment processing will then be solely incentivized by transaction fees. Today, transactions that pay a fee may be processed more quickly.^{[citation needed]}

Exchanges

Further information: Digital currency exchanger

This section requires expansion. (December 2013)

Through various exchanges, bitcoins are bought and sold at a variable price against the value of other currencies.^[28] While there may be a seemingly large number, exchanges regularly fail, taking client bitcoins with them.^[29] A published research study showed that of 40 Bitcoin exchange markets studied, 18 ended up closing over a period of 3 years.^[20] Bitcoin prices are fragmented and vary widely across exchanges.^[30]

History

Main article: History of Bitcoin

First mentioned in a 2008 paper published under the pseudonym "Satoshi Nakamoto" (a Japanese name that roughly translates as "Thinking clearly inside the foundation"),^[31] Bitcoin became operational in early 2009 with the release of the first open source Bitcoin client and the issuance of the first bitcoins.^[32]^[33]^[34] The currency had early technical problems such as a 2009 exploit that allowed the creation of unlimited bitcoins.^[35]^[36]
The first bitcoin trade for goods or services took place in 2010 after Laszlo Hanyecz posted on the BitcoinTalk forums offering to pay 10,000 bitcoins for two pizzas,^[37]^[38] on May 22, 2010 Laszlo announced a successful purchase, becoming the first real world use of bitcoins at a valuation of US$0.003 per coin.^[39]
By May 2011 interest in Bitcoin was growing, as were concerns. A report by Jason Calacanis included statements such as "Bitcoin may be the most dangerous technological project since the internet itself." ^[40]
The price of bitcoins has fluctuated wildly since its inception, going through various cycles of appreciation, which have been referred to as "Bubbles".^[41] In 2011 the value of one bitcoin rapidly rose from about US$0.30 to US$32, reached parity with the USD for the first time in February 2011^[42] before falling back down to US$2.^[43]
Following increased media attention in the latter half of 2012 and the 2012-2013 Cypriot Financial Crisis, the bitcoin price^[44] began to rise again in early 2013 reaching a peak of US$266 on April 10 before crashing to around US$50 ^[45]
In 2013 some mainstream services began accepting it as a form of payment.^[46] Certain non-profit or advocacy groups also began accepting bitcoins.
2013 also saw the first interventions by law enforcement. Assets belonging to the Mt.Gox exchange were seized, and the Silk Road drugs trading website was shut down.^[47]
During November 2013, the China-based Bitcoin exchange BTC China overtook Japan-based Mt.Gox and Europe-based Bitstamp to become the largest Bitcoin trading exchange by trade volume.^[48] On 19 November 2013, the value a bitcoin on the Mt.Gox exchange soared to a peak of US$900 following a United States Senate committee hearing, at which the committee was informed that virtual currencies were a legitimate financial service.^[49] On the same day, one bitcoin traded for over RMB¥6780 (US$1100) in China.^[50] With roughly 12 million bitcoins in existence as of November 2013,^[51] the new price increased the market cap for Bitcoin to at least US$7.2 billion.^[52]
By November 23, 2013 the total market capitalisation of all bitcoins in existence exceeded US$10 billion for the first time.^[53]
On 5 December 2013, the People's Bank of China announced it was prohibiting Chinese financial institutions from using bitcoins.^[11] Following the introduction of these new rules, the value of bitcoin dropped^[54] and Chinese internet giant Baidu reversed its policy of accepting bitcoins for certain services.^[55] Starting in October 2013, Baidu had been allowing clients of website security services to pay with bitcoins.^[56] Buying real-world goods with any virtual currency has been illegal in China since at least 2009.^[57]

Economics

Bitcoin's rate of inflation is predefined within the Bitcoin protocol and is decreasing as time goes on. At some point Bitcoin will become a deflationary currency as no new coins will be released. Since the rate of inflation is fixed it has been called "inflation-proof", or more specifically resistant to uncontrolled inflation.^[58] At present the exchange price of a bitcoin is extremely volatile, which has led to some questions about its ability to function as a currency,^[59] however others contend this is a necessary "growing pain" in such a new technology,^[60]^[61] and that Bitcoin needs to grow to achieve stability.^[62]
Bitcoin's eventual deflationary bias, which incentivizes hoarding and removes money from circulation, is also cited as a stumbling block to Bitcoin becoming a functional currency.^[63]
Even if Bitcoin doesn't succeed as a currency, it may continue to prove useful as a payment processing system. Volatility has little effect on its utility in this regard since money would need to be converted to bitcoins only for the short time it takes to make a payment or transfer.^[64] Processing fees are also substantially lower than those of credit cards or money transfers.^[26] Some feel that Bitcoin may be especially well suited to facilitating cheap cross-border money transfers.^[64]
Currently Bitcoin does see use as a currency^[65] and by November 2013 there were about 1,000 brick and mortar businesses willing to accept payment in bitcoins,^[66] and more than twenty thousand merchants online.^[67]

Alternative to national currencies

Bitcoins are accepted in this café in the Netherlands as of 2013

Some have suggested that Bitcoin is gaining popularity in countries with problem-plagued national currencies, as it can be used to circumvent inflation, capital controls, and international sanctions. Bitcoins are used by some Argentinians as an alternative to the official currency,^[68] which is stymied by inflation and strict capital controls.^[69] In addition, some Iranians use bitcoins to evade currency sanctions.^[70]
Financial journalists and analysts have suggested that there was a link between higher Bitcoin usage in Spain and the 2012-2013 Cypriot financial crisis.^[71]

Bubbles

Noted individuals who have named Bitcoin a bubble include Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan;^[72] a core developer of the Bitcoin protocol, Mike Hearn;^[73] and Economist John Quiggin.^[74]
Reuters journalist Felix Salmon correctly predicted the bursting of one such Bitcoin bubble in April 2013.^[75]
Nick Colas, a market strategist for ConvergEx Group, is among those who see Bitcoin's quick rise in price as nothing more than normal economic forces at work.^[76]
Bitcoin's Lead Developer, and Chief Scientist of the Bitcoin Foundation, Gavin Andresen has also spoken on the subject stating "I predict there will be between one and five Bitcoin bubbles" ^[77]

Intrinsic value

Bitcoins have been described as lacking intrinsic value because their value depends only on the willingness of users to accept them.^[78]^[74]
However, according to Austrian economists, value is not intrinsic, i.e., nothing has "intrinsic value".^[79]

Speculation

Bitcoins are often traded as an investment^[80] by speculators who expect the currency to increase in value as its popularity widens.^[81] The European Banking Authority has warned that the risks of engaging in such speculation go beyond the possibility that the value of Bitcoin drops.^[82]
Their vulnerability to hacking and theft also makes their use as an investment more questionable.^[83] Velasco and Medina counter this argument by noting the abstract work involving in minting a bitcoin: while the use value of a bitcoin is not universally agreed upon, its labour value is firmly established.^[84]
Derivatives of bitcoins are thinly available. One organization offers futures contracts against multiple currencies.^[85]
Bitcoins have attracted the attention of some Wall Street types with Peter Thiel's Founders Fund investing US$3 million and the Winklevoss twins making a US$1.5 million personal investment^[86] as well as making an attempt to launch a Bitcoin ETF. On January 7, 2014 it was reported that the IRS were studying how bitcoins might be taxed. Forbes suggested that a motivation behind the review may have come as a result of attempts by the Winklevoss twins to create an exchange traded fund.^[87]

Reception

The above diagram depicts how public-key cryptography is used to confirm a bitcoin transaction. A user creates a transaction which includes their public address, amount to send, and the recipients address, and signs it by creating a hash of the transaction with their private key. The transaction also includes the signatures of previous transactions to ensure sequential continuity and verify inputs.^{[citation needed]}

Economists have had a mixed reaction to Bitcoin. Some have responded positively to Bitcoin, including François R. Velde, senior economist of the Federal Reserve in Chicago who described it as "an elegant solution to the problem of creating a digital currency."^[88]^[89]
Other economists commenting on Bitcoin have been critical. Nobel laureate Paul Krugman has suggested that the structure of the currency incentivizes hoarding and that its value derives only from the expectation that others will accept it as payment ^[90]^[91] further dismissing Bitcoin as being essentially worthless^[92] since it has "no clear use" ^[93] and commenting on price volatility stated that "The economic significance of this roller coaster was basically nil".^[94]
Former U.S. Treasury Secretary Larry Summers has expressed a "wait and see" attitude when it comes to Bitcoin.^[95]
In November 2013 Richard Branson announced that Virgin Galactic would accept Bitcoin as payment, saying that he had invested in Bitcoin and found it "fascinating how a whole new global currency has been created", encouraging others to also invest in Bitcoin.^[96]^[97] PayPal President David A. Marcus has said he thinks that Bitcoin is a "great place to put assets" but that it won't be a currency until its price volatility reduces.^[98]

Lack of anonymity

The block chain is a public ledger of every bitcoin transaction and does provide pseudo-anonymity in that a bitcoin address do not directly identify their owner. However, tracking the flow of bitcoins through transactions can give clues as to who the owner is.^[99] Bitcoin uses cryptography but does not do so to protect the identities of its users. Bitcoin is anonymous in that it is difficult to associate Bitcoin transactions with real-life identities.^[100] In addition Bitcoin intermediaries such as exchanges are required by law in many jurisdictions to collect personal customer data.^[69] Bitcoin has been criticized for its proof of knowledge by the free software movement activists including Richard Stallman, who called for reformed development.^[101]

Legal issues and status

Criminal activity linked to Bitcoin has largely centered around theft of the currency, the use of botnets for mining, and the fact that some will accept bitcoins in exchange for illegal items or services. Certain nation states may feel that its use in circumventing capital controls and for gambling are also undesirable. While some governments have taken a hands-off approach, others have moved to regulate Bitcoin and similar, private currencies. This may stem from a perceived association with criminal activity, the ability of Bitcoin to evade capital controls, and the fact that the currency lacks consumer protections.^{[citation needed]}

Black markets

Several news outlets have asserted that the popularity of Bitcoin hinges on the ability to use them to purchase illegal substances.^[102] In 2013 The Guardian reported that the currency was primarily used to purchase illegal drugs and for online gambling,^[103] and The Huffington Post stated that "online gambling accounts for a huge portion of Bitcoin activity."^[104] C. 2013 legitimate transactions were thought to be far less than the number involved in the purchase of drugs,^[105] and roughly one half of all transactions made using Bitcoin were bets placed at a single online gaming website.^[106] In 2012, an academic from the Carnegie Mellon CyLab and the Information Networking Institute estimated that 4.5 to 9% of all bitcoins transacted were for purchases of drugs at a single online market, Silk Road.^[107] As the majority of the Bitcoin transactions were at this time speculative in nature, this academic asserted that drugs constituted a much larger percentage of the products and services bought using the currency, however.^[107] The Huffington Post stated in 2013 that online gun dealers use Bitcoin to sell arms without background checks.^[108]

Criminal activity

Bitcoin's association with criminal activities has historically hindered the currency from attaining widespread, mainstream use and has attracted the attention of financial regulators, legislative bodies, and law enforcement.^[109] The Washington Post had labeled it "the currency of choice for seedy online activities,"^[110] and CNN has called Bitcoin a "shady online currency [that is] starting to gain legitimacy in certain parts of the world."^[111] Its links to criminal activities have prompted scrutiny from the FBI, US Senate, and the State of New York. The FBI stated in a 2012 report that "bitcoins will likely continue to attract cyber-criminals who view it as a means to move or steal funds".^[112]
Steven Strauss, a Harvard public policy professor, has suggested that due to its close association with illegal purchases, governments could outlaw Bitcoin, which was also mentioned in 2013 SEC filing made by a Bitcoin investment vehicle.^[113] Bitcoins are not currently illegal in the US, however. FBI Special Agent Christopher Tarbell has stated that "bitcoins are not illegal in and of themselves and have known legitimate uses".^[114]

Legal status

Money laundering

Some regulatory and law enforcement authorities, including the European Banking Authority, feel Bitcoin may be used for money laundering.^[120] A 2012 report by the FBI acknowledged such fears but stated that there were no known instances of this occurring.^[112] Some say one obstacle to bitcoins becoming widely used to launder money is that all transactions are public.^[121] During a US Senate hearing in 2013, Jennifer Shasky Calvery, director of the Treasury Department's Financial Crimes Enforcement Network stated, "cash is probably still the best medium for money laundering."^[122]

Unauthorized mining

In June 2011, Symantec warned about the possibility of botnets engaging in covert mining of bitcoins.^[123] Some malware used the parallel processing capabilities of GPUs built into many modern video cards.^[124] In mid-August 2011, Bitcoin mining botnets were detected again,^[125] and less than three months later Bitcoin mining trojans infecting Mac OS X were also discovered.^[126] In April 2013 electronic sports organization E-Sports Entertainment was accused of hijacking 14,000 computers to mine bitcoins; the case was settled in November with the organization fined US$1 million if it breaks the law within the following ten years or $325,000 if it does not.^[127]

Thefts

Theft of bitcoins has happened on a regular basis. Generating and storing keys offline mitigates such risks, however.^[128] In addition to theft, bitcoins can be lost. One user lost £4.0m when he inadvertently discarded a hard drive storing 7,500 bitcoins.^[129]
In late November 2013, as many as 96,000 bitcoins were stolen from the online drug website "Sheep Marketplace".^[130] Users were able to track and trace the theft although the thief made efforts to launder transactions through a process called "tumbling".^[131] Although the coins were successfully traced they have not yet been recovered.^[132]
Bitcoin is a peer-to-peer payment system and digital currency introduced as open source software in 2009 by pseudonymous developer Satoshi Nakamoto. It is a cryptocurrency, so-called because it uses cryptography to control the creation and transfer of money.^[5] Users send payments by broadcasting digitally signed messages to the network. Participants known as miners verify and timestamp transactions into a shared public database called the block chain, for which they are rewarded with transaction fees and newly minted bitcoins.^[6] Conventionally "Bitcoin" capitalized refers to the technology and network whereas "bitcoins" lowercase refers to the currency itself.^[7] Bitcoins can be obtained by mining or in exchange for products, services, or other currencies.^[8]
Bitcoin has been a subject of scrutiny due to ties with illicit activity. In 2013 the FBI shut down the Silk Road online black market and seized 144,000 bitcoins worth US$28.5 million at the time.^[9] The United States, however, is currently considered to be Bitcoin friendly compared to other governments.^[10] In China, new rules restricted bitcoin exchange for local currency,^[11] and the European Banking Authority has warned that Bitcoin lacks consumer protections.^[12] Bitcoins can be stolen and chargebacks are impossible.^[13]
Commercial use of Bitcoin, illicit or otherwise, is currently small compared to its use by speculators, which has fueled price volatility.^[14] Bitcoin as a form of payment for products and services has seen growth, however, and merchants have an incentive to accept the currency because transaction fees are lower than the 2–3% typically imposed by credit card processors.^[15]